TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

GENERAL PURPOSE CUTTING TOOLS

The lathe cutting tool or tool bit must be made of the correct material and ground to the correct angles to machine a workpiece efficiently. The most common tool bit is the general all-purpose bit made of high-speed steel. These tool bits are generally inexpensive, easy to grind on a bench or pedestal grinder, take lots of abuse and wear, and are strong enough for all-around repair and fabrication. High-speed steel tool bits can handle the high heat that is generated during cutting and are not changed after cooling. These tool bits are used for turning, facing, boring and other lathe operations. Tool bits made from special materials such as carbides, ceramics, diamonds, cast alloys are able to machine workpieces at very high speeds but are brittle and expensive for normal lathe work. High-speed steel tool bits are available in many shapes and sizes to accommodate any lathe operation.

SINGLE POINT TOOL BITS

Single point tool bits can be one end of a high-speed steel tool bit or one edge of a carbide or ceramic cutting tool or insert. Basically, a single point cutter bit is a tool that has only one cutting action proceeding at a time. A machinist or machine operator should know the various terms applied to the single point tool bit to properly identify and grind different tool bits (Figure 7-4).

The shank is the main body of the tool bit.

The nose is the part of the tool bit which is shaped to a point and forms the corner between the side cutting edge and the end cutting edge. The nose radius is the rounded end of the tool bit.

The face is the top surface of the tool bit upon which the chips slide as they separate from the work piece.

The side or flank of the tool bit is the surface just below and adjacent to the cutting edge.

The cutting edge is the part of the tool bit that actually cuts into the workpiece, located behind the nose and adjacent to the side and face.

The base is the bottom surface of the tool bit, which usually is ground flat during tool bit manufacturing.

The end of the tool bit is the near-vertical surface which, with the side of the bit, forms the profile of the bit. The end is the trailing surface of the tool bit when cutting.

The heel is the portion of the tool bit base immediately below and supporting the face.

Angles of Tool Bits

The successful operation of the lathe and the quality of work that may be achieved depend largely on the angles that form the cutting edge of the tool bit (Figure 7-4). Most tools are hand ground to the desired shape on a bench or pedestal grinder. The cutting tool geometry for the rake and relief angles must be properly ground, but the overall shape of the tool bit is determined by the preference of the machinist or machine operator. Lathe tool bit shapes can be pointed, rounded, squared off, or irregular in shape and still cut quite well as long as the tool bit angles are properly ground for the type of material being machined. The angles are the side and back rake angles, the side and end cutting edge angles, and the side and end relief angles. Other angles to be considered are the radius on the end of the tool bit and the angle of the tool holder. After knowing how the angles affect the cutting action, some recommended cutting tool shapes can be considered.

Rake angle pertains to the top surface of the tool bit. There are two types of rake angles, the side and back rake angles (Figure 7-4). The rake angle can be positive, negative, or have no rake angle at all. The tool holder can have an angle, known as the tool holder angle, which averages about 15°, depending on the model of tool holder selected. The tool holder angle combines with the back rake angle to provide clearance for the heel of the tool bit from the workpiece and to facilitate chip removal. The side rake angle is measured back from the cutting edge and can be a positive rake angle or have no rake at all.

Rake angles cannot be too great or the cutting edge will lose strength to support the cutting action. The side rake angle determines the type and size of chip produced during the cutting action and the direction that the chip travels when leaving the cutting tool. Chip breakers can be included in the side rake angle to ensure that the chips break up and do not become a safety hazard.

Side and relief angles, or clearance angles, are the angles formed behind and beneath the cutting edge that provide clearance or relief to the cutting action of the tool. There are two types of relief angles, side relief and end relief. Side relief is the angle ground into the tool bit, under the side of the cutting edge, to provide clearance in the direction of tool bit travel. End relief is the angle ground into the tool bit to provide front clearance to keep the tool bit heel from rubbing. The end relief angle is supplemented by the tool holder angle and makes up the effective relief angle for the end of the tool bit.

Side and cutting edge angles are the angles formed by the cutting edge with the end of the tool bit (the end cutting edge angle), or with the side of the tool bit (the side cutting edge angle). The end cutting edge angle permits the nose of the tool bit to make contact with the work and aids in feeding the tool bit into the work. The side cutting edge angle reduces the pressure on the tool bit as it begins to cut. The side rake angle and the side relief angle combine to form the wedge angle (or lip angle) of the tool bit that provides for the cutting action (Figure 7-4).

A radius ground onto the nose of the tool bit can help strengthen the tool bit and provide for a smooth cutting action.

Shapes of Tool Bits

The overall shape of the lathe tool bits can be rounded, squared, or another shape as long as the proper angles are included. Tool bits are identified by the function they perform, such as turning or facing. They can also be identified as roughing tools or finishing tools. Generally, a roughing tool has a radius ground onto the nose of the tool bit that is smaller than the radius for a finishing or general-purpose tool bit. Experienced machinists have found the following shapes to be useful for different lathe operations.

A right-hand turning tool bit is shaped to be fed from right to left. The cutting edge is on the left side of the tool bit and the face slopes down away from the cutting edge. The left side and end of the tool bit are ground with sufficient clearance to permit the cutting edge to bear upon the workpiece without the heel rubbing on the work. The right-hand turning tool bit is ideal for taking light roughing cuts as well as general all-around machining.

A left-hand turning tool bit is the opposite of the right-hand turning tool bit, designed to cut when fed from left to right. This tool bit is used mainly for machining close in to a right shoulder.

The round-nose turning tool bit is very versatile and can be used to turn in either direction for roughing and finishing cuts. No side rake angle is ground into the top face when used to cut in either direction, but a small back rake angle may be needed for chip removal. The nose radius is usually ground in the shape of a half-circle with a diameter of about 1/32 inch.

The right-hand facing tool bit is intended for facing on right-hand side shoulders and the right end of a workpiece. The cutting edge is on the left-hand side of the bit, and the nose is ground very sharp for machining into a square corner. The direction of feed for this tool bit should be away from the center axis of the work, not going into the center axis.

A left-hand facing tool bit is the opposite of the right-hand facing tool bit and is intend to machine and face the left sides of shoulders.

The parting tool bit, Figure 7-6, is also known as the cutoff tool bit. This tool bit has the principal cutting edge at the squared end of the bit that is advanced at a right angle into the workpiece. Both sides should have sufficient clearance to prevent binding and should be ground slightly narrower at the back than at the cutting edge. Besides being used for parting operations, this tool bit can be used to machine square corners and grooves.

Thread-cutting tool bits, Figure 7-7, are ground to cut the type and style of threads desired. Side and front clearances must be ground, plus the special point shape for the type of thread desired. Thread-cutting tool bits can be ground for standard 60° thread forms or for square, Acme, or special threads. Thread-cutting forms are discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.

SPECIAL TYPES OF LATHE CUTTING TOOLS

Besides the common shaped tool bits, special lathe operations and heavy production work require special types of cutting tools. Some of the more common of these tools are listed below.

Tungsten carbide, tantalum carbide, titanium carbide, ceramic, oxide, and diamond-tipped tool bits (Figure 7-8). and cutting tool inserts are commonly used in high-speed production work when heavy cuts are necessary and where exceptionally hard and tough materials are encountered. Standard shapes for tipped tool bits are similar to high-speed steel-cutting tool shapes. Carbide and ceramic inserts can be square, triangular, round, or other shapes. The inserts are designed to be indexed or rotated as each cutting edge gets dull and then discarded. Cutting tool inserts are not intended for reuse after sharpening.

Specially formed thread cutter mounted in a thread cutter holder (Figure 7-9). This tool is designed for production high-speed thread cutting operations. The special design of the cutter allows for sharp and strong cutting edges which need only to be resharpened occasionally by grinding the face. The cutter mounts into a special tool holder that mounts to the lathe tool post.

The common knurling tool, Figure 7-10, consists of two cylindrical cutters, called knurls, which rotate in a specially designed tool holder. The knurls contain teeth which are rolled against the surface of the workpiece to form depressed patterns on the workpiece. The common knurling tool accepts different pairs of knurls, each having a different pattern or pitch. The diamond pattern is most widely used and comes in three pitches: 14, 21, or 33. These pitches produce coarse, medium, and fine knurled patterns.

Boring tool bits, Figure 7-11, are ground similar to left-hand turning tool bits and thread-cutting tool bits, but with more end clearance angle to prevent the heel of the tool bit from rubbing against the surface of the bored hole. The boring tool bit is usually clamped to a boring tool holder, but it can be a one-piece unit . The boring tool bit and tool holder clamp into the lathe tool post.

There is no set procedure to grinding lathe tool bit angles and shapes, but there are general guidelines that should be followed. Do not attempt to use the bench or pedestal grinder without becoming fully educated as to its safety, operation, and capabilities. In order to effectively grind a tool bit, the grinding wheel must have a true and clean face and be of the appropriate material for the cutting tool to be ground. Carbide tool bits must be ground on a silicon carbide grinding wheel to remove the very hard metal.

High-speed steel tool bits are the only tool bits that can effectively be ground on the bench or pedestal grinder when equipped with the aluminum oxide grinding wheel which is standard for most field and maintenance shops. Before grinding, shaping, or sharpening a high-speed steel tool bit, inspect the entire grinder for a safe setup and adjust the tool rests and guards as needed for tool bit grinding (Figure 7-12).

Set the tool rest 1/8 inch or less from the wheel, and adjust the spark arrestor 1/4 inch or less. Each grinder is usually equipped with a coarse-grained wheel for rough grinding and a fine-grained wheel for fine and finish grinding. Dress the face of the grinding wheels as needed to keep a smooth, flat grinding surface for the tool bit. When grinding the side and back rake angles, ensure the grinding wheel has a sharp corner for shaping the angle. Dip the tool bit in water occasionally while grinding to keep the tool bit cool enough to handle and to avoid changing the property of the metal by overheating. Frequently inspect the tool bit angles with a protractor or special grinding gage. Grind the tool bit to the recommended angles in the reference for tool bit geometry (Table 7-l in Appendix A). After grinding to the finished shape, the tool bit should be honed lightly on an oilstone to remove any burrs or irregular high spots. The smoother the finish on the cutting tool, the smoother the finish on the work. Figure 7-13 shows the steps involved in grinding a round nose tool bit to be used for turning in either direction. As a safety note, never use the side of the grinding wheel to grind a tool bit, as this could weaken the bonding of the wheel and cause it to crack and explode.